Disk Diffusion Test Lab Report

In the first stage in the normal body, vitamin B12 binding proteins that found in saliva to enters the stomach. Then the stomach uses hydrochloric acid to liberate vitamin B12 from the proteins. However, in the first stage of pernicious anemia, the stomach excretes a small amount of hydrochloric acid. This leads to a failure of separate vitamin B12 from food proteins, which inhibit vitamin B12 from absorption. In addition, the lack of secretion of hydrochloric acid provides a suitable environment for a reproduction of gut bacteria.

These plates would be those which were treated with RNase, protease, lysozyme and the plate with buffer only. The only plate expected to not have any growth was the plate which was treated with DNase. The DNase would have broken down the double-stranded DNA molecule into its nucleotides and thus, would have been unable to transfer genetic material from the ampicillin resistant strain of E. coli to the ampicillin sensitive strain. Therefore, no new transformants containing ampicillin resistance would have been present and so, the bacteria would have been killed by the ampicillin-containing plate. The experiment conduced at Wits did not correlate with Avery and MacLeod's results entirely.

Tetracycline which is used to treat acne, respiratory tract infections and other conditions kill bacteria by inhibiting protein synthesis. This is done by stopping molecules to bind on a certain area of the cell called ribosome. Since key molecules can bind to ribosomes which is the site where protein synthesis happens the bacteria will die because it can’t carry out vital functions including asexual reproduction. Some antibiotics kill bacteria by stopping the production of folic acid which is an essential vitamin for proper functioning of the cell’s

The technique is often used in research to detect specific proteins which have extracted from cells. In this process, a mixture of proteins separated based on two distinguishing properties which are molecular weight and antibody binding specificity. According to the procedure, proteins first separated based on size which have to perform with SDS-PAGE. Next, the proteins from the gel are then transferred to a polymer membrane (PVDF or nitrocellulose) to make them more accessible to the antibodies that specific to the target protein.

The most common treatment for these infections, caused by Staphylococcus aureus is the antibiotics. There are many kinds of antibiotics using in the modern days, but the first kind of antibiotic being introduced for treating Staphylococcus aureus was Penicillin in 1943. This kind of antibiotic stops the formation of peptidoglycan cross-linkages that makes the bacterial cell well stronger. This eventually makes the cell wall formation and degradation become imbalanced, consequently lead to the cell to die. Other kinds of antibiotic were quick introduced for treating Staphylococcus as well.

Although, most of these are safely killed by lysosomal degradation enzymes, many intracellular pathogens have evolved the ability to escape killing mechanism, allowing them to either proliferate inside the vesicular compartment or to escape into the cytosol. In an attempt to prevent infection, cells deploy macroautophagy and LC3-associated phagocytosis (LAP; discussed in detail later) to capture bacteria, followed by delivery into lysosomes for destruction. In contrast to LAP, which modifies the limiting membrane of pathogen-containing vesicles, macroautophagy engulfs pathogens with additional autophagosome- derived membranes. The principal targets of antibacterial autophagy are bacteria-containing vesicles, bacteria associated with remnants of damaged vesicles, and bacteria that have already escaped into the cytosol. Once caught safely inside an autophagosome, the autophagosomal double membrane restricts pathogen dispersal and provides an additional barrier against potential attempts of pathogens to manipulate cellular processes.

They either restrict and limit the bacteria reproduction and multiplication or kill them directly. They have an advantage of being able to differentiate between the bacterial cells and host’s cells. On the other hand, they also have a disadvantage for patients who suffer from frequent infections. The regular intake of antibiotics triggers antibiotic resistance. This happens when bacteria resist the influences of the antibiotics.

Forms of rejection can be alleviated in many ways including, genetically engineering the donors tissue using genetic modification (GM) or by weakening/reducing the recipients immune system response to foreign genetic material using immunosuppressant drugs (eg. Tacrolimus, Mycophenolate Acid, Sirolimus etc) which also sustain enough immunity to prevent immense infections. An alternative method to reduce the risk of rejection is to alter the immune system to tolerate the transplanted cells, tissue or organ. Therefore, the immune system will not send out chemical messages to T and B cells, found continuously circulating the body, to attack and destroy the new

As the blood goes through our body, it picks up extra fluid chemicals, and waste. The job of the kidney is to separate the extra fluid chemicals and waste from the blood. In that way, the waste products and go out of our body through urine. If the kidney is unable to do this, then the waste products will stay in our body, and cause serious health problems

When pH is high which means more OH⁻, then aluminum ions will react with hydroxide ions to form aluminum hydroxide. Phosphate ions are acting as a natural buffer. If the equipment is not washed with acid, it would cause an error. This is because the phosphorus analyzing is dealing with low concentration of phosphorus and it is easily contaminated by detergent and other chemicals and it has to be washed by using an acid and also it has to be rinsed with distilled water once it is rinsed with acid.

Mosquitos carry several diseases. Another statement the article made is “ The state and federal gov. has said the water treated with this chemical is safe.” But that is not true if you can still get asthma, eczema, and etc. The only difference is it takes longer.

Once innate immunity has seemed to fail, adaptive immunity sets in. Adaptive immunity is the body’s defense against a specific pathogen. One protein that A. schmiddy has is known as the Opa protein which, in short, inhibits the T Helper cells. Opa proteins inhibits T Helper cells (CD4+ cells) so antigens presented on MCHII is not recognized so B cells are not activated and cytokines are not released. Therefore, TH1, TH2, and TH17 are not activated, resulting in macrophages, mast cells, eosinophils, basophils, and neutrophils not being recruited.

Enzymes are catalysts in biological systems, that lower the activation energy, so that molecules can begin reacting with each other. Since enzymes have a very selective active site, if the enzyme shape is changed or denatured, it won’t allow the enzyme to bind. Catalytic enzymes break down the toxic hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen gas. (Bryer) (Baker) The purpose of these labs were to see how different concentrations of pH, and hydrogen peroxide would affect the enzymes, catalase and

Each plate serves as a first step to identify the unknowns. The TSA (tryptic soy agar) can be used to do a gram stain, which differentiates gram-negatives from gram-positives, based on the structural make up of the cell wall (Carson, 2015). The blood agar plate is used to test for hemolytic activity, which is useful for distinguishing gram-positives. A MacConkey plate is selective by inhibiting the growth of gram-positives and differential due to the fermentation of lactose by certain gram-negative species. In the

Transformation in bacteria usually takes place when a bacterial cell accepts strange DNA and integrates to its own DNA. The transformation normally takes place within plasmids, which are tiny circular DNA molecules that have been separate from its own chromosome. The copies of the same plasmid range from 10 to 200 copies within a cell. These copies of plasmids may multiply when the chromosome replicate or multiply independently. One plasmid has a range of 1,000 to 200,000 base pairs.