Five Biomechanical Principles

All australopithecines possess anatomical characteristics of the pelvis, femur and spinal column that facilitate bipedal locomotion. Whether or not the australopithecines were fully adapted bipeds is still hotly debated in the literature. There are several important adaptations to bipedal locomotion that can be observed on skeletal material. First, the foramen magnum is shifted forward, underneath the skull. This positioning is indicative of the angle at which the spinal cord enters the skull (Tobias, 1998).

Typical Adult Anatomy: Bones A fully functioning hip joint is a vital portion of anatomy, from birth to advanced adulthood. The hip is responsible for the stabilization of a person’s body weight whether the person is static or dynamic. The physical joint is classified as a ball-and-socket joint, the head of the femur articulates with the acetabulum of the pelvis. With how the head is oriented in the socket, the joint is able to withstand tremendous amounts of pressure and allows it to be a strong and stable portion of the human anatomy.

In each knee joint, there is two pieces of C-shaped cartilage which lies between the surfaces of the femur and tibia. The lateral side of the meniscus is known ad lateral meniscus while the medial side is known as medial meniscus. The major role of the menisci is to absorb the impact load between the femur and tibia and also to provide some degree of stabilization to

2 Hip Muscles and Movements The hip joint is a multi-axial ball-and-socket joint, and therefore, movements along perpendicular planes occur over a wide arch of motion, namely flexion and extension, adduction and abduction, medial and lateral rotation, and circumduction . Muscles surrounding the hip are divided into groups; each is mainly, but not only, responsible for a certain movement of the hip. The main hip flexor is the psoas muscle, helped by the iliacus, but also other muscles assist in hip flexion. Extension is mainly performed by the gluteus maximus.

Understanding the tibiofibular syndesmosis needs a hint of the surrounding anatomic structures. Talocrural and Subtalar Joints The ankle, or talocrural joint, is a modified-hinge, uniaxial joint formed by the medial malleolus of the tibia, the talus and the lateral malleolus of the fibula. Specifically, the convex superior articular surface of the talus or trochlea articulates with the concave distal articular facet of the tibia. The medial malleolus articulates with the medial aspect of the trochlea whereas the lateral malleolus articulates with the lateral aspect of the trochlea.

Anatomy Understanding the tibiofibular syndesmosis needs an inclusive knowledge of the surrounding anatomic structures. Talocrural joint The ankle, or talocrural joint, is a modified-hinge, uniaxial joint formed by the medial malleolus of the tibia, the talus and the lateral malleolus of the fibula. Specifically, the convexsuperior articular surface of the talus or trochlea articulates with the concave distal articular facet of the tibia. The medial malleolus articulates with the medial aspect of the trochlea whereas the lateral malleolus articulates with the lateral aspect of the trochlea.

In this paper, we present a decentralized control strategy which is based on discrete-time adaptive control, for control of the ankle joint in paraplegic subjects using functional electrical stimulation .Agonist-antagonist co-activation is used to control the ankle movement. To achieve this purpose, first, the human is modeled as a single segment inverted pendulum which rotates about the ankle joint. Second, the nonlinear relationship between inclination angle and center of pressure is modeled. Finally, two discrete-time adaptive controllers are used to stabilize the upright posture. Each muscle-joint complex is considered as a subsystem, and separated controllers are designed for each one.

They are static loco-motor balance and dynamic loco-motor balance. Dynamic loco-motor Balance is defined as an ability to control the center of gravity (COG) within the base of support (BOS) while the body parts are in motion (Raymakers, Samson and Verhaar, 2005 and Sinaki et at, 2004). Levangie and Norkin (2005) defined kinetic

Pressure epiphysis is the ‘’secondary centre of ossification that forms at the articular end of a long bone”. Pressure is involved in the formation of joints. The pressure epiphysis assists transmitting the weight of the body. For example, the head of the femur as a component of the hip joint complex, also the head of the humerus, this forms a part of the shoulder complex.

Some jersey’s were similar to polo shirts, there team colors are striped on them and they have the number on the back of them. Football players are covered head to toe in padding. In rugby you have to get inside the end zone and get a “try.” You have to run into the end zone and that’s all, but sometimes you can kick it. On each side of the field 15 people guard their territory and on the field they have to stretch across in a line.

While right(dominate) shoulder and elbow is in a flexed position as well. The ball is situated on the palm of the hand; and the wrist is extended. As you are building momentum

scapula and clavicle abduction Glenohumaral joint Internal rotation Flexion Extension Adduction Ulna, radius , humerus elbow – flexion, extension And elbow joint forearm - supination, pronation Phalanges adduction Carpals wrist hyperextension Pelvic girdle (hip joint) hip flexion Hyper extension Abduction Femure ( knee joint ) flexion Tibia, fibula (ankle joint ) ankle dorsiflexion Tarsals , calcaneus, cuboid extension Navicular, cuniform, Metatarsals, phalanges MUSCULAR ANALYSIS Neck hyper extension semispinalis capitis Splenus capitis Rectus capitis Posterior major Lattisimus