Chapter Two: Literature Review
2.1 Chemistry of Chromium Chromium is the 22nd most abundant element in the crust of the earth with an average of 100 ppm. Chromium discovered in 1790 by a French chemist Louis Nicholas Vauquelin while he was experimenting a material known “Crocoite”- Lead chromate PbCrO4. Chromium is the first element in group 6 in the periodic table with atomic number of 24 and Cr symbol [2]. It may occur in all oxidation states from”-2 to +6”, mainly as metallic (Cr0), trivalent (Cr+3) and Hexavalent (Cr+6) which is principally synthesized by the oxidation of the naturally occurring trivalent chromium; it is also highly toxic and carcinogenic. Trivalent chromium is an essential trace element that is required for
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The holo-chromodulin eventually removed from the body via urine. Due to the large biding constant of LMWCr to chromium ions, it cannot be converted to its inactive form. However, inactive LMWCr compensation mechanism within the body is unknown.
2.6 Chromium Deficiency
2.6.1 Definition A condition that results from an inadequate dietary intake of chromium, it is an uncommon condition. Clearly defined cases have been observed only in hospital patient that rely only on defined liquids intravenously for long periods.
2.6.2 Signs and Symptoms Chromium deficiency can produce symptoms other than elevated blood sugar levels, such as, fatigue, confusion, anxiety, weight loss, and abnormal cholesterol metabolism. Increased progress of atherosclerosis and slower healing time preceding injuries or surgery are associated with it.
2.6.3 Causes Consumption of refined foods especially simple sugars (like fructose and sucrose) worsens the problem of chromium deficiency because it increases the loss of chromium from the body. In addition to the fact that they are already chromium deficient, stressful situations such as pregnancy, strenuous exercise, and infections also increase the body loss of chromium. Chromium deficiency is also present in elderly and diabetics
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However, oral hypoglycemic agents in addition to dietary manipulations are most time obligatory to manage hyperglycemia in these patients. T2D is relevant after age 40, but it can occur in younger people. Recently, T2D has been an emergent issue in children in many developed societies.
2.9.2 Pathogenesis of Type 2 Diabetes β-cell dysfunction and insulin resistance are two central, interrelated defects in the pathophysiology of T2D. An inability of the pancreas to make enough insulin to compensate insulin resistance, and a decreased insulin ability to act on peripheral tissue respectively. Hence, a relative insulin deficiency usually occurs early in the disease, whereas absolute deficiency comes late.
2.10 Diagnosis of Diabetes Mellitus
Table 1: demonstrates the ADA diagnostic criteria of Diabetes [64].
Fasting Plasma Glucose (FBG) ≥ 126mg/dL (7.0 mmol/L)
Oral Glucose Tolerance Test (OGTT) ≥ 200 mg/dL (11.1 mmol/L)
Hemoglobin A1C (HbA1c) ≥ 6.5%
Random Plasma Glucose ≥ 200 mg/dL (11.1
Cadet Eric Wiggins Date: 18 September 2014 Course Name: Chem 100 Instructor: Captain Zuniga Section: M3A Identification of a Copper Mineral Intro Minerals are elements or compounds that are created in the Earth by geological processes. The method of isolating metals in a compound mineral is normally conducted through two processes.
It can also happen to due kidney diseases. They are three kinds of Metabolic alkalosis, 1) Hypocloermic alkalosis is caused by an extreme lack or loss of chloride, from prolonged vomiting. 2) Hypokelemic alkalosis, which is caused by the kidneys response to an extreme loss or lack of potassium. This can happen from taking diuretics.
According to the observations recorded, the metal ion Cesium is present in the “unknown samples”. Unknown sample number five produced a violet color when placed in the flame. Unknown sample number four produced an orange color when placed in the flame. Unknown sample number one produced a violet color when placed in the flame. This evidence supports the claim that the metal ion Cesium is present in the unknown samples according to table two, the Flame Spectra of the Alkali and Alkaline-Earth Elements.
Metal cations can be identified based on the colors they emitted off when heated in a flame.1 When atoms of the ions that were tested are excited, their electrons move up to higher levels of energy.2 When the electrons relax and return to the original states, they emit photons of specific energy creating wavelengths of light that produces colors.3 The test wire and Bunsen Burner were used to excite the solution in the crucible. The standard metal cations that were tested and their outcomes are as shown in Table 1.
Constant hyperglycaemia and poor foot hygiene, lack of lifestyle modification, poor blood glucose monitoring, and lack of exercises may lead to uncontrolled diabetes. The diabetic neuropathy leads the patient’s feet to get injury and ulcer formation. The BMI indicates that the person’s weight the degrees
AA adults have the highest mortality rate from DM in individuals less than seventy years of age than other ethnic groups (Tancredi, et al., 2015). In 2010, diabetes mellitus has caused the deaths of 69,071 people in the United States with total percentage deaths of all males (48.2%) and females (51.4%). In 2013, their mortality rate accounted for 21.2 deaths per 100,000 populations (CDC, 2015). This alarming statistics have proven that AA adults at risk for T2DM are in a greater need for EB interventions that will be championed by the advanced practice nurses
Diabetes 1 has two pick ages when it occurs. The first peak age is in children between 4 and 7years old. Second – 10 to 14 years old while diabetes 2 tends to occur in people over 45 years old. How bad can diabetes effect on human’s health?
Type two diabetes is caused by obesity, unhealthy diet, being inactive, environmental factors, and genetics. Three of the five causes can be easily prevented by many ways. For example, you could run a mile everyday or replace chips in your meal with an apple. There are many symptoms of type two diabetes: being tied, losing weight, blurry vision, and sometimes a wound that will not heal. If someone has these symptoms, they should contact their doctor immediately.
Diabetes mellitus type two is a metabolic disorder that is categorized by hyperglycaemia in the context of insulin resistance and relation lack of insulin. It comprises of over ninety percent of people with diabetes around the world. The effect of such illnesses is excess body weight and physical inactivity. More than eighty percent of diabetes deaths occur in third world countries like the Tohono O’odham and the Pima Indians of southern Arizona, more than half of all adults in that population have diabetes and that is within every ten people, there are at least five people who have type two diabetes. Why did it happen?
Diabetes has been affecting humans and animals worldwide for several years. With no initial cure, numerous new treatments have been created through thorough research and diagnoses by doctors. What is diabetes? To begin with, diabetes is a disease causing the body to make little to no insulin (insulin is a hormone produced in the pancreas used to regulate glucose levels in the blood). Diabetes consists of three types: Type 1, Type 2, and gestational diabetes.
Diabetes is three times more common than 20 years ago. Mortality, even with the increase in incidence and prevalence the mortality rates have remained reasonably unchanged. Diabetes is the 8th leading specific cause of death for both males and females accounting for 1,923 deaths or 2.7% of all deaths in males, and 1,887, or 2.8%of deaths in females. Diabetes is also a contributing cause of death in about 10% of all deaths for both males and females. The trends in death rates of diabetes as the underlying cause increased from 15.8 to 16.5 per 100,000 between 1980 and 2007.
However this test has a low sensitivity where some individuals with low result would be considered to be deficient but show no clinical evidence of deficiency and conversely symptoms of deficiency can be seem when the result does not fall into the low range. There is a large ‘grey zone’ or ‘indeterminate range’ between normal and abnormal levels. In order to detect vitamin B12 deficiency, a more sensitive and specific screening test is required. Haptocorrin (HC) and transcobalamin (TC) are transport proteins for vitamin B12 . Transport of vitamin B12 to the tissues is brought about by TC.
Type 2 Diabetes is where the body does not produce enough insulin for proper function or the body’s cells do not respond to the insulin. Gestational Diabetes affects females during pregnancy. These women have very high blood sugar (glucose) levels. (What is Diabetes?) 4.
It provides a clear description of what CHS is and how it affects someone with the syndrome. Brewerton and Anderson take the reader through the full process of someone with CHS. They start by presenting the reported symptoms, the diagnosis, and the treatments for the syndrome. The authors also discuss the pathophysiology and the different theories of CHS. The purpose of this case report is to provide the facts on CHS and what causes the syndrome.
In Malaysia, individuals with MCH of less than 27pg and low haemoglobin will be investigated for iron deficiency anaemia which is also a common condition with low MCH. For those with MCH of less than 27pg and normal haemoglobin, the next step is to quantitate the haemoglobin fractions (HbA2 and HbF) using hemoglobin electrophoresis or High Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) and a