Maslow's Theory of Expectancy

There is no consensus regarding the relative accuracy of Maslow’s categories in the absence of rigorous scientific investigation (Reid-Cunningham, 2008). At all levels, needs are present at a given time (Aswathappa, 2005).6 • Maslow’s theory is difficult to test (Reid-Cunningham, 2008). The theory is difficult for managers to apply in practice, as there are individual and cultural differences even within organizations (Aswathappa, 2005). • Some rewards (e.g., a higher salary) may satisfy more than one need (Mullins, 2005).
In spite of these criticisms, Aswathappa (2005) believes that the Theory offers an account of interpersonal variations in human behavior. This is important for managers. Managers could consider the principle of interpersonal

This theory explains that individuals can be motivated towards goals if they believe that; there is a positive correlation between efforts and performance, the outcome of a favorable performance will result in a desirable reward, a reward from a performance will satisfy an important need, and/or the outcome satisfies their need enough to make the effort worthwhile. Vroom introduced three variables within the expectancy theory which are valence (V), expectancy (E) and instrumentality (I). The three elements are important behind choosing one element over another because they are clearly defined: effort-performance expectancy (E>P expectancy), performance-outcome expectancy (P>O expectancy). Expectancy theory has three components: expectancy, instrumentality, and

1. Self-efficacy – the person 's belief about their ability to successfully perform a particular behavior. The individual will assess whether they have the required skills or knowledge desired to achieve their goals.
2. Goal difficulty – when goals are set too high or performance expectations that are made too difficult. This will most likely lead to low expectancy. This occurs when the individual believes that their desired results are unattainable.
3. Perceived control – Individuals must believe that they have some degree of control over the expected outcome. When individuals perceive that the outcome is beyond their ability to influence, expectancy, and thus motivation, is low.
 Instrumentality: Performance → Outcome (P→O)
Instrumentality is the belief that a person will receive a reward if the performance expectation is met. This reward may present itself in the form of a pay increase, promotion, recognition or sense of accomplishment. Instrumentality is low when the reward is the same for all performances