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Tokenism Literature Review

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Tokenism. Kanter (2003) elucidated tokenism as a situation where organizations made perfunctory gestures in a bid to represent minority groups in leadership. For instance, such practices include appointing one to two women minorities to top teams to reflect TMT diversity. The concept of “tokenism” emerged as one of the palliative measures that some firms adopted to comply with the gender diversity tenets of their firms. Kanter (2003) averred that men were more accepting of “one woman amidst several men” on a team and felt more in control when the diversity condition of at least “one representative” was satisfied than having none at all (pp. 790-810). However, Kanter asserted that tokenism failed to correct the consequences of gender-based …show more content…

Following from the resource control arguments, O’Reilly and Pfeffer (2000) averred that the more resources a leader controlled, the more power he would derive and the more people he could influence. Pfeffer (1981) and O’Reilly and Pfeffer both alluded to a social science theory of power to explain issues of gender, power, and promotion in organizations. O’ Reilly and Pfeffer cited the concept of executive authority to explain why individuals conspired to retain their positions in the corridors of power even if other candidates, (mainly female minorities), were seen as better qualified. O’Reilly and Pfeffer observed that women were viewed as subordinate and weak to play such politics due to their “communal” orientation and approach to work. Furthermore, Pfeffer (1981) and O’Reilly and Pfeffer (2000) inferred that there were more males in positions of power to advocate the advancement of men than there were women to sponsor the elevation of women to TMTs. Pfeffer (1981) indicated that the high-level polarization and crises that characterized organizational leadership in a bid to control power limited the inclusion of women in top teams. Thus, top women executives could potentially lose the power “game” to males on TMTs due to their inexperience in playing the “politics of manipulation and power” at work (pp.

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