Introduction
Clostridium Botulinum is the bacteria from which Botox is derived from. It can be found in its inactive form in the natural environment, in things such as the forest, cultivated soils and the sediment of lakes and streams, also in the intestinal tracts of mammals and fish. Naturally occurring forms of this bacteria and spores are normally harmless. Problems only arise when the spores transform into vegetative cells and the cell population increases to the point where the bacteria Clostridium Botulinum begin producing the botulinum toxin, a deadly neurotoxin responsible for botulism.1 Botulinum A toxin is one of seven serotypes (A-G), these toxins are responsible for four recognised types of diseases including infant botulism, wound botulism and food-borne and adult intestinal colonization.2, 3 In all cases, the toxin which is a Zn2+ endopeptidase, acts by blocking cholinergic synapses by cleaving intracellular proteins responsible for the docking and fusion of synaptic vesicles to the plasma membrane.4 Despite its toxicity, botulinum toxins have been found to have great value as pharmaceutical agents and are used to treat numerous diseases
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Acetylcholine then binds to receptors on the muscle fibre membrane (sarcolemma) causing depolarisation. A wave of depolarisation travels down tubules (T system). T system depolarisation leads to Ca2+ release from stores in sarcoplasmic reticulum. Ca2+ binds to proteins in the muscle, which leads to contraction. Acetylcholinesterase in the gap rapidly breaks down acetylcholine so that contraction only occurs when impulses arrive continuously. As acetylcholine is able to diffuse into the synaptic cleft, the electrical impulse continues to be conducted by the muscle causing the action potential to
As muscle contractions occur they myosin filaments bind and attach to the actin filaments Myofibril is the contractile threads found in striated muscle cells and a segment of myofibril is called a sarcomere. The role of the sarcoplasmic reticulum is storing calcium ions, as well as releasing calcium ions during muscle contractions and reabsorbing calcium ions when the muscles relax. Actin is a protein that forms the thin filament in muscle cells. Thin filaments are made up of two long chains of actin molecules that are twisted around one another.
Gastroenterology Research & Practice, 1-6. doi: 10.1155/2016/2687605 Nanwa, N., Sander, B., Krahn, M., Daneman, N., Lu, H., Austin, P., Govindarajan, A., Rosella, L., Cadarette, M., & Kwong, J. (2017). A population-based matched cohort study examining the mortality and costs of patients with community-onset clostridium difficile infection identified using emergency department visits and hospital admissions. Plos ONE, 12(3), 1-13. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0172410 Ng, K., Ferreyra, J., Higginbottom, S., Lynch, J., Kashyap, P., Gopinath, S., Naidu, N., Choudhury, B., Weimer, B., Monack, D., & Sonnenburg, J. (2013). Microbiota-liberated host sugars facilitate post-antibiotic expansion of enteric pathogens.
Clausen and Treadwell were not the first chemists/biochemists to examine and study the story of Chris McCandless. Another well-known theory was that a neurotoxin referred to as beta-ODAP had killed him (207). Scientifically speaking, Chris McCandless died because of an amino acid; lethal in large amounts, but what brought him to only eat potato seeds is as much the cause of death as the
So, the result was presented as the emergence of paralysis in the affected areas. Initial blockage of sodium ion channel totally deactivated an entire process in the neuromuscular junction. In other words, sodium ions mainly influence to the action potential generated in muscle cells, so TTX may inhibit muscle activity
Researchers used nursing theories to help guide research on complicated phenomena(Connelly, 2014). After reviewing evidences collected on the topic "Antibiotic therapy and Clostridium difficile infection (CDI)", the most common theories that have been cited are, exposure to antibiotic, especiallyin patients that have been previously diagnosed with bacterial infections(respiratory, urinary and osteoarticular infections) are significanly at risk for acquiring CDI and theory for prevention cited was implementation of an Antibiotic stewardship program. Inaddition,hand hygiene, contact precaution and environmental cleaning protocols where other interventions listed. Concept Definitions Exposure to antibiotic- is operationally defined as the last time within 30 days a hospitalized patients received antibiotic therapy before the current hospital
Honey, is a very concentrated sugar solution with a high osmotic pressure, making impossible the growth of any microorganisms. It contains fewer microorganisms than other natural food; especially there are no dangerous Bacillus species. Honey contains Bacillus bacteria, causing the dangerous bee pests, but these are not toxic to humans. That is why, to prevent bee pests, honey should not be disposed in open places, where it can easily be accessed by bees. However, some bacteria are present in honey, most of them being harmless to man.
Clostridum difficile is a gram-positive, spore-forming bacterium that was identified in 1987 to be responsible for antibiotic-associated diarrhea.1 C.difficile’s pathogenicity is due to toxin production. Two toxins have been well described as the main virulence factors: enterotoxin (toxin A) and cytotoxin (toxin B).2,3,4 Another strain of C. difficile that does not express toxin A or B but expresses a binary toxin that has increasing evidence of pathogenicity.2,3 C. difficile acquisition and gut flora disruption must both occur to acquire CDI. The largest risk factor for CDI is broad-spectrum antibiotic usage due its disruption of the colonic flora. Other risk factors for infection include older age, recent hospitalization, PPI therapy, chemotherapy,
A study was conducted by Zhang’s team to see which meat was contaminated by MRSA. From this article I found out that the risk of becoming infected is high if you have open cuts or sores. Cooking kills the bacteria, but consumers have the risk of getting infected by handling the meat that is contaminated by the germ. I also learn that MRSA has always been found in human. The bacteria can be transfer from human to meat or from meat to human.
Samples from this study were taken from stranded animals that primarily died from natural CSS, which limited our ability to draw conclusions regarding the extent of exposure among the general population or normal healthy animals. Taking samples from decomposing animals and long-term storage times associated with using archived samples also may have affected the quality of the sample due to possible toxin loss. Additionally, while ELISA is a powerful and sensitive tool that can detect low-levels of toxins, it provides composite toxin levels, rather than a complete toxin profile. Due to differences in receptor affinity, and toxicity of metabolites or derivatives of the toxins, it can be difficult to truly understand the potential toxic burden from a composite test. Ideally, positive ELISA samples are confirmed by liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (LCMS), which was not possible during this study.
In myasthenia gravis, antibodies block, alter, or destroy the receptors for acetylcholine at the neuromuscular junction, which prevents the muscle contraction
Introduction Clostridium Botulinum is the bacteria that BOTOX® is made from. It can be found naturally in the environment in its inactive form, in things such as the forest, cultivated soils and the sediment of lakes and streams, also in the intestinal tracts of mammals and fish. This bacteria is normally harmless in its naturally occurring form, but when the spores transform into vegetative cells, problems arise, because the cell population increases to the point where the bacteria Clostridium Botulinum begins to produce the deadly neurotoxin responsible for botulism, the botulinum toxin.1 Clostridium Botulinum toxin type A is one of seven serotypes (A-G), these toxins are responsible for four recognised types of diseases including infant botulism, wound botulism and food-borne and adult intestinal colonization.2, 3 The toxin is a Zn2+ endopeptidase toxin, and it acts by blocking cholinergic synapses in all cases, by cleaving
Studies have indicated that exposure, even at low levels, can quash the immune system contributing to bacterial and viral infections, coughing, skin irritation, and other allergic reactions. The principal reason that stachybotrys is such a huge health issue is because it creates a poison from a fungus named trichothecenes. When inhaled or ingested, stachybotrys causes the following health
The threshold of neurons are held at -55 mV. During graded potentials, the neurotransmitters are released from the presynaptic terminal and binds onto a chemically gated channels on the postsynaptic neuron which causes the gate channels to open causing leakage to happen which, in turn, permits ions to flow out of the cell. When the charge meets the threshold, the neuron is then excited enough to cause an action
Botulism is a rare but serious paralytic illness caused by a nerve toxin mainly produced by the bacterium Clostridium botulinum.1 It is not a contagious disease, however the bacteria can enter the body through inhalation, ingestion or through a wound. Botulinum toxin produced by Clostridium botulinum is claimed to be one of the most poisonous substance to human as an estimation of one million people can be killed by using only one gram of crystallized Botulinum toxin.2 It has an effect on human nervous system which then lead to a gradual paralysis that spread from head to whole body, eventually causing a fatal respiratory failure if not treated promptly. Even though botulinum toxin is the first biological toxin that had been licensed for human disease treatment, it is still considered as a threatening biological warfare agent by the experts due to its characteristics of highly lethal in minute amount, easy to manufacture and
Figure 32 Anatomy of the gill withdrawal reflex in the Aplysia2. The gill withdrawal reflex involves neurons within the abdominal ganglion. Sensory information from the siphon skin travels along the siphon nerve until it reaches